Institution: Dordt College
Abstract
Go to: [Introduction][Methods][Results][Discussion][References] Research has shown that auditory distraction interferes with reading and listening comprehension. However, little research has explored the effects of different music information loads on listening comprehension. In this study, 57 college students heard an audiotaped speech that was either played simultaneously with low-information load music, music with high information-load, or no background music. Participants in the no-music and low information-load conditions both had significantly higher listening comprehension scores than those in the high information-load condition. These results suggest that the kind of music heard, and more specifically, its information load, influences the ability to listen to and comprehend speeches.
Introduction
Go to: [Abstract][Methods][Results][Discussion][References] A popular saying states that people were made with two ears and only one mouth for a reason: listening is more difficult than speaking. Listening is a crucial aspect of the verbal communication process. Without hearing and understanding what is being said, people cannot process or act on information. Since one of the main components of good listening comprehension is giving undivided attention to the speaker, it is important to minimize distractions (Cousins, 1996; Mulvany, 1998).
Auditory distractions have been shown to affect performance on non-auditory tasks, as demonstrated by Hartley and Williams (1977). A study with both static noise and music conditions demonstrated that participants had better visual discrimination in the static condition than in the music condition (Hartley & Williams, 1977). Another study has shown that background instrumental music played while participants were visually presented with digit sequences significantly impaired their ability to remember the digits correctly (Nittono, 1997). More specifically, reading comprehension is affected by auditory distraction. Research shows that background music decreases reading comprehension scores relative to silence (Etaugh & Michals, 1975; Etaugh & Ptasnik, 1982). Some researchers have also studied how different kinds of music interfere with comprehension. According to Mehrabian (1976), music information-load consists of loudness, variety, complexity, and tonal range; a large amount of varied auditory stimuli can interfere with concentration (as cited in Kiger, 1989). Kiger (1989) found that reading comprehension scores were higher in a condition with low information-load music than in conditions with silence or high information-load music. In this study, high information-load music was "dissonant, rhythmically varied, and highly dynamic" while low information-load music was "highly repetitive...with a narrow tonal range" (Kiger, 1989, p. 532).
Finally, auditory distraction has also been shown to affect listening comprehension. In one study, participants heard recordings of passages from a book with either background babble or silence; their listening comprehension scores decreased as the volume level increased, particularly for questions pertaining to specific details (Schneider, Daneman, Murphy, & Kwong See, 2000). Other research has shown lower listening comprehension scores for those who heard atonal music as opposed to tonal music (Pearsall, 1989).
Research has shown the negative effects of background noise, particularly music, on several kinds of tasks. The influence of music information-load on reading comprehension has been demonstrated, but not its possible influence on listening comprehension. Does music with varying information-loads affect listening comprehension in different ways? The present study addressed how music information loads affected listening comprehension of a recorded speech. We predicted that participants who listened to a speech in silence would have higher listening comprehension scores than participants who heard the speech with music in the background. Furthermore, we expected that those who listened to low information-load music (classical/instrumental) would have better scores than those who listened to high information-load music (soft rock).
Methods
Go to: [Abstract][Introduction][Results][Discussion][References] Participants
Participants were 12 male and 35 female undergraduates from a lower-level psychology class; their mean age was 20.56 years. They voluntarily participated and received extra credit in the course for their participation.
Materials
All participants heard a tape-recorded persuasive speech from an essay titled "The Problem with Pennies" (Ingraham, 1992). The speech, recorded by one of the experimenters, was seven minutes long and presented arguments for why pennies should be eliminated from the U.S. currency. The low information-load music consisted of seven minutes of classical music by Granados and Beethoven. To fit with the low-information load categorization, it was a repetitive tune with some pitch and volume variance. High information-load music consisted of seven minutes of The Tuesdays, a soft rock group with instrumentation and lyrics. The music had lyrics along with variety in tone, pitch, and complexity.
A 12-item multiple-choice and true-false test was developed to assess listening comprehension of the main ideas and some details of the speech. Manipulation checks, asking the participants if they heard anything during the speech, and 7 demographic questions were included at the end of the test. One of these items asked whether students had taken a college-level communication course; another asked how often participants listened to music while studying on a 5-point scale where 1 = "never" to 5 = "always."
Procedure
Participants were randomly assigned to the no-music, low-load (classical music), or high-load (rock music) conditions. Testing occurred in the same classroom, in a building in which noise levels were very low. Participants were tested in groups ranging in size from 8 to 25, and were seated in individual desks. After they completed the informed consent statement, the experimenter played a tape with recorded instructions, which included telling the participants not to talk or take notes during the testing. Immediately after the instructions were finished and any questions were answered, the experimenter played the recorded speech. Participants in the music conditions heard the music concurrently with the recorded speech, while participants in the no-music condition heard only the recorded speech. The music was played at a volume level slightly lower than that of the speech. Participants individually completed a 15-min filler arithmetic task before completing the listening comprehension and demographic questionnaire. When all of the participants were finished, they were debriefed, thanked, and dismissed.
Results
Go to: [Abstract][Introduction][Methods][Discussion][References] Listening comprehension scores were calculated as the total number correct on the 12 questions. The manipulation check indicated that all participants correctly perceived their music condition.
We predicted that the highest listening comprehension scores would be for those in the no-music group, followed by the low-load (classical music) group, and the lowest scores would be in the high-load (rock music) group. As expected, music condition significantly affected listening comprehension scores F (2, 56) = 11.46, p < .05. Post-hoc Tukey tests showed that participants in the no-music (M = 9.67, SD = 1.45) and low-load conditions (M = 9.47, SD = 1.32) had significantly higher scores than those in the high-load condition (M = 7.32, SD = 2.14). There was a non-significant difference between the no-music and classical conditions. We also explored whether other variables affected listening comprehension scores. Participant age, gender, frequency of listening to music while studying, and whether they had taken a communication class did not have a significant effect upon listening comprehension, all Fs < 1.00, p = ns.
Discussion
Go to: [Abstract][Introduction][Methods][Results][References] The purpose of this study was to test whether auditory distraction would affect listening comprehension of a recorded speech. Both low and high information-load music variables were studied in order to clarify the relationship between music and listening comprehension. We predicted that the highest comprehension scores would be in the no-music condition, followed by the low information-load, with the lowest scores in the high information-load condition. In this study, high information-load music significantly decreased the listening comprehension scores of a recorded passage. However, contrary to our hypothesis, the comprehension in the low-load music condition was not significantly different from that of the control condition.
Although Kiger (1989) found that reading comprehension scores were higher in the low information-load condition than the no-music condition, both Kiger and this study found that the comprehension scores from the high-information load were significantly lower. The results regarding the low information-load conditions propose that a small amount of auditory stimulation may be beneficial. Our results were also consistent with those of Etaugh and Ptasnik (1982), who identified that participants who read with background music had lower comprehension than those who read in silence. Furthermore, while Etaugh and Michals (1975) found a significant gender difference in auditory comprehension, gender did not significantly affect the comprehension scores in this study. One possible reason for why the low information-load condition was not significantly different from the no-music condition may be that comprehension was aided by "rhythms and melody...because it diverted less attention and allowed greater concentration on the task at hand" (Myer, 1979, as cited in Kiger, 1989, p. 533). One explanation for the significant difference between the high information-load condition and the other two conditions may be that "high information-load music produces tension and anxiety in the listener so that complex tasks requiring concentration are seriously impaired" (Mehrabian, 1976, p. 49).
This study was limited by a lack of equipment to regulate the volume level. It is possible that the differences between the groups were affected by possible slight volume level differences between the high information-load and low information-load conditions. There was also more natural variance in volume in the low information-load condition, which could have made particular parts of the speech easier to hear. The results of the study may also have been affected by testing participants in small groups. The mere presence of other participants may have also affected comprehension scores by distracting them or if participants felt rushed to complete the task because other participants were already finished.
There are several ways in which research on music information load effects on listening comprehension can be continued. It is important to see whether this outcome is applicable to different age groups, or only college-age adults. Studying various demographic populations may contribute new information about any variances in listening comprehension between those groups. It would also be beneficial to examine whether testing participants individually or in groups produces a significant difference in the scores. Another possible area of research is deciphering the effect of volume levels of music, and when it is no longer distracting to most listeners.
In conclusion, the results of this study are important for many different everyday situations. Music is prevalent in many settings that require good listening comprehension. For example, many offices have music playing in the background while workers are conversing with clients or listening to supervisor's instructions. Music is often played in the home or in a vehicle, where family members interact with one another or with visiting guests. Listening comprehension could be dramatically improved by considering the information-load of such background music.
References
Go to: [Abstract][Introduction][Methods][Results][Discussion] Cousins, R. (1996). Active listening is more than just hearing. Supervision, 57, 14-15.
Etaugh, C., & Michals, D. (1975). Effects on reading comprehension of preferred music and frequency of studying to music. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 41, 553-554.
Etaugh, C., & Ptasnik, P. (1982). Effects of studying to music and post-study relaxation on reading comprehension. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 55, 141-142.
Hartley, L. R., & Williams, T. (1977). Steady state noise and music and vigilance. Ergonomics, 20, 277-285.
Ingraham, S. (1992). The problem with pennies. In S. Lucas The art of public speaking (4th ed., pp. 182-184). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.
Kiger, M. (1989). Effects of music information load on a reading comprehension task. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 69, 531-534.
Mehrabian, A. (1976). Public places and private spaces. New York: Basic Books.
Mulvany, S. (1998). Improving listening skills. Journal of Property Management, 63(4), 20.
Nittono, H. (1997). Background instrumental music and serial recall. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 84, 1307-1313.
Pearsall, E. (1989). Differences in listening comprehension with tonal and atonal background music. Journal of Music Therapy, 26(4), 188-197.
Schneider, B. A., Daneman, M., Murphy, D. R., & Kwong See, S. (2000). Listening to discourse in distracting settings: The effects of aging. Psychology & Aging, 15, 110-125.
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